has converted enormous areas into thickets of post oak or blackjack oak that make poor habi- tat for turkeys and other wildlife. An abundant native flora of legumes is one source of food that seems stimulated temporarily to increased pro- duction by ground fires, but this is probably more than offset by the heavy grazing. The ex- tent to which this pattern of land use has re- duced the carrying capacity of the region is difficult to estimate, but undoubtedly it has con- tributed much to the decline of the turkey population. Two national forests, the Mark Twain and the Clark, were established in the Missouri Ozarks in 1933, and their programs of land acquisition and balanced land management will aid greatly in the ultimate restoration of suit- able turkey habitat in the state. At present, two- thirds of the occupied turkey range is included within the boundaries of these two national for- ests, but since 40 per cent of their gross area is still in private ownership it is not yet possible to appraise the effects of the Forest Service pro- gram on the total turkey population within the state. As acquisition continues, however, more and more turkeys will range on national forest lands, where wildlife receives its logical place in land management and where improvements in turkey habitat are already noticeable. With respect to fire control, the Forestry Sec- tion of the Conservation Commission is contrib- ing much on lands not included in the national forest boundaries. PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TURKEYS Legal protection. The Missouri turkey sea- son has been closed since 1937, and game-law en- forcement has improved immeasurably since that date; yet illegal hunting continues to be the most important direct factor limiting turkey increases. Poaching is carried on more or less the year around by many Ozark natives and some village “sportsmen.” Its most damaging form is the killing of “frying-sized” pouilts in the early fall. The low density of the turkey population in many areas is directly attributable to the heavy kill; thus protection still remains the first and most important step in management. Sparse turkey populations often respond al- most immediately to improved protection. This was demonstrated in the zone around the new Caney Mountain Refuge in Ozark County (8), where extensive patrolling and an enlightened public attitude resulted in tripling the turkey population over a large area in two years, with- out any noticeable change in the environment. Many other spots with increased density of popu- lation are associated with improved protection. Refuges. In Missouri the five types of turkey refuges now in operation are (1) state parks, (2) state forests, (3) federal refuges (U. S. Forest Service), (4) state refuges, and (5) private cooperative management areas. Some are highly successful, while others have failed in the production of turkeys. Practically all are successfully producing deer. Table 2 lists the refuges concerned with turkeys, with pertinent data regarding each. The first five, all of which support a density on and surrounding the refuge of more than 40 turkeys per township, are considered very successful. Those with 20-40 birds per township are moder- ately successful, while those with less than 20 are definitely unsuccessful. The success of a refuge seems to depend first of all on the location and nature of the area. Three of the five successful refuges are located in the southwestern “bald,” or glade, country of Clarksville stony loam, while the least successful are mostly on granite soils in the eastern Ozarks. The second factor in determining refuge suc- cess is the type of management, one of the most essential features of which is the exclusion of disturbance. Several potentially fine refuges have been rendered unproductive by excessive human activity. Public recreational develop- ments on state parks, and activities of the Civil- ian Conservation Corps on many other areas, have driven out the wild turkey, which has a relatively low tolerance of disturbance and will not remain in the constant presence of man (4). Refuge size, as such, is not necessarily impor- tant, since some of the smallest as well as the largest are among the most successful. How- ever, small refuges in particular need freedom from internal disturbance and the cooperative assistance of neighboring residents. The type of turkey with which each area is stocked appears to have an important bearing upon the productivity. To date the 6 most pro- ductive refuges are predominantly stocked with native birds of wild origin. The degree to which game-farm birds may repopulate potentially good turkey range is being further tested. Private cooperative management areas may prove to be quite successful, particularly on nat-